| | | | | 2) the early Buddhist theory or interpretation which we |
| The ancient Indian theory of liberation is the view that | | | | would now call broadly scientific or psychological. |
| one can liberate oneself, permanently and in this life, | | | | (This is a difference that later became less obvious |
| from unhappiness. The idea of liberation was first | | | | because of Hindu and Buddhist influence on each |
| introduced as early as 800BCE in the Upanisads, part | | | | other, but never entirely went away). |
| of the founding literature of Hindu thought. It was | | | | In the Hindu tradition two central concepts used in the |
| subsequently accepted by all other ancient Indian | | | | philosophy of mental liberation, the inner self (atman), |
| schools of philosophy, including Jainism and Buddhism, | | | | and the supreme principle or God (brahman), while they |
| except for the materialists. It is an important theme | | | | have a rational philosophical side to them, also have a |
| running through Indian thought, right up to the present | | | | religious dimension, and this leads to an account of |
| day, and a special Indian contribution to the world. | | | | mental liberation similar to the religious one of it in terms |
| | | | | of opening up to one’s immortal soul and seeking |
| It is a tradition that has become most widely known in | | | | unity with God. |
| the case of Buddhism. Here liberation is put centre | | | | The Buddha rejected these two concepts, denying the |
| stage, and here it is expressed most clearly that | | | | existence of an enduring inner self and a supreme |
| liberation is from unhappiness or duhkha, and that this is | | | | God, and gave an account of mental liberation in |
| ordinary everyday unhappiness. There is the well | | | | ordinary psychological terms. There was an |
| known story that Siddhartha Gautama achieved | | | | anti-metaphysical attitude in early Buddhism, with an |
| liberation while sitting under a tree at the age of about | | | | emphasis on the Buddhist doctrines of no-self, |
| thirty five, thereby becoming the Buddha or enlightened | | | | impermanence, and interdependency being pragmatic, |
| one. The image of the seated Buddha at the time of | | | | practical aids to gaining nirvana, to be put aside when |
| his liberation is the most recognisable image of | | | | nirvana is reached. |
| liberation in the world today. ‘Nirvana’, the | | | | However, despite this significant difference in outlook |
| Buddhist term for liberation, is a word that has entered | | | | between Hindus on the one hand, and Buddhists on the |
| the English language. | | | | other, they may both agree that the direct knowledge |
| | | | | of reality in the liberated state is consciousness |
| The fame of the Indian notion of liberation hasn’t | | | | undistorted by concepts, and differ mainly in that |
| been all good news for the wider reputation of Indian | | | | Hindus may call that reality brahman or God, whereas |
| thought. It has led to a popular Western view of India | | | | the Buddhists do not. |
| as the land of religion and mysticism, contrasted with | | | | |
| the rational philosophies and sciences that developed in | | | | So, to sum up, the ancient Indian account of |
| Europe. It is understandable that exponents of Indian | | | | unhappiness is that its internal cause is the fact that |
| thought nowadays tend to play down liberation in order | | | | we are largely at the mercy of our mental |
| to draw attention to India’s many contributions to | | | | processes. The answer, the way to liberate ourself |
| critical philosophy and science. But is liberation itself | | | | from unhappiness, is to train ourself to have mastery |
| just a matter of religious belief? | | | | over our own consciousness. We are capable, in this |
| | | | | life, of gaining full and permanent control over our |
| An initial reason for thinking so is that the ancient | | | | emotions, so that we enjoy emotional stability and |
| sources say it is liberation, not just from unhappiness, | | | | efficiency and inner peace. We can establish |
| but from rebirth, which it is widely agreed is an | | | | beneficial motivation so that our behaviour is dedicated |
| unhappy state of affairs. But this depends on how | | | | to doing what is for the best for ourself and others. |
| one interprets the notion of rebirth. Undoubtedly the | | | | We can learn to be mentally alert. We can gain full |
| most visible interpretation of rebirth in Indian thought is | | | | and permanent control over our thoughts, so that we |
| that it means physical rebirth after death, and this is a | | | | use them economically when we need them, and |
| religious notion in the sense that it is not supported by | | | | empty our head of them when we don’t. This will |
| empirical evidence but just accepted as a matter of | | | | give us mental clarity, so that we are presented with |
| faith. However, I have argued in my article | | | | consciousness as it truly is, distinct from the concepts |
| “Rebirth in Hinduism and Buddhism is Also an Image | | | | that are applied to it. All this is a decisive and enduring |
| of Unhappy Consciousness”, that, as well as the | | | | change to a new perfected state of consciousness, |
| notion of physical rebirth after death, there is also the | | | | or, as we would now say, to an optimum state of |
| notion of psychological rebirth, a poetic image of the | | | | brain organisation. |
| restless and changeable nature of ordinary, everyday, | | | | |
| unhappy human consciousness in this present life. So | | | | |
| there is physical rebirth after death, but there is also | | | | Temporary Experiences of Mental Liberation |
| psychological ‘rebirth’ in this present life as an | | | | |
| image of mental unhappiness. | | | | I want to suggest now that there is present day |
| | | | | evidence that the state of mental liberation from |
| Whether or not one accepts that, there are, I would | | | | unhappiness as set out in ancient India is possible. I |
| now like to argue, certainly two kinds or stages of | | | | am referring to spontaneous and temporary changes |
| liberation along the same lines. | | | | of consciousness that many people report happening |
| | | | | to them, in which they forget themselves, feel deep |
| When one achieves liberation in this life, Indian accounts | | | | peace, and experience sense consciousness more |
| widely agree that the first thing that happens is mental | | | | vividly. I want in particular to describe such an |
| liberation from psychological unhappiness in this life, | | | | experience that I had myself in 1980, and of which I |
| from the unhappy round of everyday conscious and | | | | wrote an account at the time which I still possess. It |
| emotional states. This sort of unhappiness is | | | | had much the same range of features as are given in |
| uncontroversially and incontrovertibly part of our lives. | | | | the ancient Indian writings on mental liberation. People |
| Mental liberation replaces it with a settled state of inner | | | | have reported such experiences over the centuries, |
| peace and happiness, a notion of human | | | | and in ancient India the Buddha mentioned having such |
| transformation of relevance to everyone. This is the | | | | a spontaneous experience when he was a child. The |
| exhileratingly optimistic tradition of liberation in Indian | | | | human brain has not changed since that time, and it |
| thought which is the main concern of this article. | | | | may be that such experiences now are a living link |
| | | | | back to such experiences then, and even that such |
| The second stage of liberation, physical liberation, is | | | | temporary states provided the basis for the ancient |
| said to occur when the mentally liberated person dies, | | | | Indian development of their theory of mental liberation. |
| and what this amounts to is that he or she isn’t | | | | |
| physically reborn. I shall deal with this briefly in the | | | | In the case of my spontaneous and temporary |
| next section. | | | | experience of mental liberation, it could be said that I |
| | | | | had done some prior training for it. I had been |
| | | | | studying Buddhism and practising Buddhist meditation |
| Physical Liberation | | | | for about four years. I was also on holiday, and so |
| | | | | was relaxed and had no work to do. Nevertherless, |
| The ancient Indian theory of physical rebirth has it that | | | | the experience happened in otherwise ordinary |
| unliberated people are physically reborn after death | | | | circumstances, on the lower deck of a ship sailing |
| into a different life, whereas the liberated person is | | | | across the English Channel from Boulogne to Dover, |
| not. Given this belief in physical rebirth, physical | | | | sitting next to a family of people chatting, with constant |
| liberation from being physically reborn is a significant | | | | pop music from a nearby loudspeaker, and with a |
| achievement. However, since the existence of | | | | rolling sea causing some passengers to be sick. |
| physical rebirth is something just assumed in ancient | | | | |
| Indian culture without evidence, liberation from it | | | | Just as is said of permanent mental liberation in the |
| appears to be an archaic and local religious belief. As | | | | ancient Indian sources, so my temporary liberation |
| such it is a less interesting, less impressive aspect of | | | | experience started at a particular time. I record that it |
| Indian culture, and it is quite appropriate that it should | | | | came on stealthily, but nonetheless say it happened at |
| take more of a back seat in modern expositions of | | | | about 6.15 in the evening, so the changeover occurred |
| Indian thought. This is compounded by the fact that | | | | within the space of a few minutes. If the brain can |
| those who continue to believe in physical rebirth | | | | make this change as quickly in the case of these |
| generally want to be reborn, and so are not interested | | | | temporary liberations, it demonstrates that it could do |
| in bringing it to an end! | | | | so in the case of permanent liberation, as Indian |
| | | | | sources claim. |
| The existence of the doctrine of physical liberation | | | | |
| alongside that of mental liberation doesn’t have to | | | | I found myself with hardly any emotions. I was |
| be an obstacle for someone who doesn’t believe | | | | almost entirely without the usual emotional responses |
| in the former but is interested in the latter. For a | | | | of desire or aversion. This demonstrates that the |
| person who doesn’t believe in physical rebirth, | | | | desirelessness, the non-attachment and non-aversion, |
| physical liberation is something he can both accept and | | | | the equanimity, of the Indian account of mental |
| disregard. He can readily accept that the liberated | | | | liberation is a state that can occur naturally, that the |
| person isn’t physically reborn, because he believes | | | | human brain is capable of, even in a normal noisy |
| that this is true of everyone. This leaves him free to | | | | environment. This gave me a deep feeling of peace, |
| move on to a consideration of mental liberation, which I | | | | mainly because having no emotional reactions caused |
| shall do myself in the next section. | | | | me to be muscularly deeply relaxed. In particular I |
| | | | | noticed how heavy my feet and my hands felt. |
| Before I do, I’ll just say a few words about physical | | | | Relaxation is not a feature much mentioned in the |
| liberation in Buddhism. Here mental liberation is called | | | | ancient texts, though being physically relaxed is a |
| nirvana, and physical liberation, the mentally liberated | | | | prerequisite of meditations leading to liberation, but it is |
| person not being reborn after her death, is called | | | | probably a physiological fact that without emotional |
| parinirvana. It is occasionally said that the latter is | | | | arousal muscles will be in a state of equilibrium. I |
| more the real or full or ultimate nirvana than nirvana in | | | | noticed that the muscles in my stomach area were |
| this present life, which seems to be saying that | | | | not quite fully relaxed, and this I think was because I |
| extinction is preferable to happiness. We don’t | | | | had a low level generalised background emotion of |
| need to accept this viewpoint. | | | | exhileration. An interesting point is that, although I had |
| | | | | no sense desires, I still had a rich sense consciousness, |
| I say ‘extinction’, because there doesn’t | | | | and was able to take pleasure in it. For example, I |
| seem to be anything that could survive the death of a | | | | enjoyed the langorous feeling of relaxation and found |
| liberated person, according to Buddhism. The | | | | the sensual awareness of my body very pleasurable |
| Buddhist view is that the person is a combination of | | | | and pleasant and luxuriated in it. I was able to do this, |
| the physical body and the mind or consciousness | | | | yet still have no sense desire for these bodily |
| (nama-rupa), without anything else such as an inner | | | | feelings. This is in line with the Buddhist distinction |
| self or soul. No-one suggests that the liberated | | | | between emotions and feelings (vedana). I felt this |
| person’s physical body survives her death. Death | | | | state of emotional equanimity to be freedom, because |
| leads to the dissolution of the body, speedily helped on | | | | I was free to use emotional energy as I needed to. I |
| its way by cremation. As for consciousness, this is | | | | wasn’t at the mercy of habitual emotional |
| said to depend on a physical organ of the body, which | | | | responses for or against things. I was free to decide |
| we now know to be the brain. Since after death | | | | how to deal with a thing regardless of whether I liked |
| there is no body to support it, neither the old one nor | | | | or disliked it. It was a state of economic and flexible |
| any new one, it looks as though consciousness | | | | use of emotions. My emotions were like a reservoir, |
| doesn’t survive the physical death of the liberated | | | | ready to be directed anywhere because they started |
| person. There is nothing else to survive it. So it | | | | without any prior bias. |
| looks as if death for the liberated person is extinction, | | | | |
| that this interpretation sometimes given to nirvana is | | | | Being without aversion, I found myself behaving |
| literally true in the case of parinirvana. | | | | towards people in a tolerant and kindly way, and once |
| | | | | in a mirror I noticed that my eyes were filled with love, |
| However, when the Buddha was specifically asked | | | | which I wasn’t expecting. This would seem to |
| what happened to the liberated person after his | | | | support the Buddhist idea that non-aversion is |
| physical death, he didn’t give this straightforward | | | | equivalent to goodwill or love (metta). But beyond |
| answer. Instead, he refused to give an answer at all, | | | | that, there wasn’t any noticeble change in my |
| saying that it would be speculative and would not help | | | | motivation. For example I wasn’t aware of having |
| the person asking the question to reach mental | | | | a strong attitude of compassion towards those people |
| liberation in this life. There has been much speculation | | | | who were being seasick. This suggests that |
| since about what the Buddha’s answer might have | | | | compassion may not arise naturally as an integral part |
| been had he given it. It seems that he thought there | | | | of the liberated state, but has to be inculcated through |
| might be something going on after the death of a | | | | training, which seems to be suggested in the Indian |
| liberated person, but he necessarily had no empirical | | | | tradition. |
| evidence for what that might be, and so could only | | | | |
| speculate, and he didn’t approve of speculation. | | | | Probably at least partly as a result of the lack of |
| On the subject of parinirvana or physical liberation in | | | | emotions, I had hardly any thoughts. The usual activity |
| early Buddhism, there is little more definite I can find to | | | | of discursive thought which normally characterises |
| say. | | | | consciousness most of the time, was absent. Each |
| | | | | thought that did arise, lasted only a short time, and |
| | | | | didn’t set off a train of others. I was able to |
| Mental Liberation | | | | actually observe thoughts arise, in the form of a vague |
| | | | | mental image, or mental speech, and then fade |
| Whereas physical liberation is from physical rebirth | | | | away. This was in part because these stray |
| after death, mental liberation is from the unhappy | | | | thoughts didn’t have to compete for attention with |
| condition of our consciousness in this present life. | | | | a background of mental chatter. I had a considerable |
| The normal state of our consciousness is one in which | | | | reluctance to in any way conceptualise the experience |
| we are not in full control of our emotions or our | | | | I was having. If ever such a thought arose, I would |
| thoughts, so that thoughts arise unbidden, and we | | | | dismiss it rapidly, saying several times to myself |
| automatically react to them emotionally which drives | | | | “It’s nothing, nothing at all”. The thoughts |
| the arising of more thoughts and more emotions. The | | | | that I hardly ever had were discursive thoughts, such |
| first experience anyone has who tries to sit down and | | | | as comments on my surroundings, memories, |
| calm his mind, is of this cavalcade of discursive | | | | fantasies, or mental reasoning. I must have still had |
| thoughts with their attendant emotions, and of his | | | | the concepts that are naturally built into sense |
| inability to get rid of them. This is the situation we can | | | | consciousness during the perceptual process, because |
| readily introspect today, and, the human brain having | | | | I still knew who I was, and where I was, and what the |
| not changed for thousands of years, it was the | | | | objects around me were. I don’t think these |
| situation which confronted the introspectors of ancient | | | | concepts can be removed, and it wouldn’t be a |
| India. Their ambitious claim was that it was possible | | | | good idea to do so in any case because it would |
| to learn to control these thoughts and emotions and | | | | cause debilitating conceptual disorientation. When |
| see reality undistorted by them and so gain mental | | | | thoughts did arise, I sometimes had a little emotional |
| liberation from mental unhappiness. | | | | attachment to them, and I noticed that this caused |
| | | | | slight muscular tension in my neck and forehead. |
| They claimed that human beings were capable of | | | | When I did need to do some thinking, I did so |
| doing this, and doing it on earth in this present life. This | | | | economically, using thoughts just as much as I needed |
| was what Siddhartha Gautama said he had achieved, | | | | to, and no more. I noticed that when I spoke, although |
| thereby earning him the title of the Buddha. He said | | | | the experience wasn’t disturbed, it was a little |
| this was a human capability, not limited to himself, but | | | | diminished. I could understand why it is said that the |
| something anyone of reasonable ability could do, and | | | | Buddha to some extent renounced his nirvana when |
| the early Buddhist texts record many ordinary people, | | | | he decided to spend his life teaching. Because I had |
| with help from the Buddha, becoming mentally liberated | | | | hardly any thoughts, I had hardly any thoughts about |
| and entering nirvana. In his book The Psychology of | | | | myself. I had clear sense consciousness of my body |
| Nirvana , Rune Johansson says that one essential part | | | | sensations. But I did not have many thoughts about |
| of the definition of nirvana is that it is attainable in this | | | | myself as a particular person with an identity, a history, |
| life. | | | | likes and dislikes, plans, and so on – what is normally |
| | | | | called the ego. If I ever did think of myself, I felt like an |
| He says that another essential part of the definition is | | | | empty vessel, or the invisible man, that I was nothing |
| that nirvana is a transformation of consciousness. | | | | special at all. This meant that I related to other people |
| The ancient Indian conception of mental liberation is | | | | without either shyness or assertiveness, and looked |
| more than just a set of ideals or virtues. It is said to | | | | them full in the face rather like a very young child |
| actually bring an end to the normal unsatisfactory | | | | does. This selflessness was not a moral feature, or |
| consciousness and replace it with a new perfected | | | | a renunciation, but simply an example of a general lack |
| kind of consciousness, what we might call a different | | | | of thought about anything at all. However, it provided |
| sort of brain organisation. | | | | a basis for me to treat all people morally as equal to |
| | | | | myself. |
| It is claimed that this changeover to the liberated state | | | | |
| of consciousness, though it might be preceded by a | | | | All through the experience, though I had few thoughts, I |
| long period of gradual progress, when it happens does | | | | remained mentally attentive. I was never sleepy or |
| so quite suddenly at a particular time. This is what is | | | | lethargic. My muscles were relaxed, but my brain |
| said to have happened to Siddhartha Gautama, who | | | | was alert. I was aware of my surroundings. I |
| became a Buddha at a specific time and in a specific | | | | immediately responded to other people when I needed |
| place, and the same is said of those of his followers | | | | to. If a thought did arise, I noticed it at once. I was |
| who also gained their liberation. In terms of the brain, | | | | also laying down clear memories of the experience, |
| mental liberation is a tipping point, where the brain is | | | | which enabled me to write quite a detailed account of |
| suddenly changed from the old mode of operation to a | | | | it afterwards. |
| new one. | | | | |
| | | | | Although my muscles were deeply relaxed, I was able |
| Although it is liberation from unhappiness, this new | | | | to instantly initiate physical activity when I needed to, |
| state could have been a merely neutral one. But it is | | | | indeed more readily than usual. For example, in a |
| claimed that this is not so, that it is in fact a pleasant | | | | normal situation of being comfortable in a chair, I would |
| state, and this is another essential part of the definition | | | | have been unwilling to stir myself, and would have |
| of nirvana according to Johansson’s survey of the | | | | heaved myself out of it reluctantly. But during my |
| early Buddhist literature. We might say that it is a | | | | liberation experience this wasn’t the case. I was |
| state of happiness. | | | | very deeply relaxed indeed, yet when I needed to get |
| | | | | out of my chair, I did so at once. This, I take it, was in |
| It is often said that mental liberation, when it comes, is a | | | | part because, unaffected by any prevailing emotional |
| completed state, a state of perfection. There is | | | | attitude, my muscles were in a state of equilibrium, |
| nothing else to do, no further progress to be made. | | | | ready to be activated in whatever way was |
| The Buddha spoke in these terms. One has worked | | | | required. Added to this, in a brain emptied of thoughts, |
| towards this state by training oneself mentally, and the | | | | when an activating thought did appear it stood out |
| idea is that there comes a time when the training is | | | | alone without any countermanding thoughts to modify |
| completed, and the new skills have been mastered. | | | | it. It gave a clear order to my muscles, and so they |
| | | | | responded at once. More significantly, I was able to |
| Furthermore, it is claimed that the mental liberation that | | | | readily do things despite having no desires. One view |
| follows from this completed mental training is a | | | | is that actions require desire or other emotions to |
| permanent state which lasts for the rest of one’s | | | | make them happen. I had no emotions, yet found it |
| life. This is another essential component of the | | | | entirely easy to initiate and perform actions. The |
| definition of nirvana listed by Johansson. Moreover, | | | | Buddhist explanation of this is that my actions |
| the liberated person knows that the liberation is | | | | weren’t driven by desire, but by wish-to-do |
| permanent, as the Buddha is said to have done. | | | | (chanda). An alternative might be that desire did arise |
| Presumably this is because the liberated person | | | | to power the action, but only as much as was |
| knows she has mastered the required mental skills. | | | | required, so that the desire was entirely used up in the |
| Having said this, there is some mention of the liberated | | | | instantaneous process of producing the action. No |
| person having to do a little from time to time to | | | | doubt a psychologist could shine light here. Once |
| preserve the liberated state, presumably because | | | | initiated, engaging in physical activity felt effortless. |
| mental skills have to be maintained through regular | | | | When I walked, I seemed to glide along. I suppose |
| practice. | | | | because my energy wasn’t being drained by |
| | | | | continual emotional responses and thoughts, it was all |
| So, it is claimed that human beings are capable in this | | | | available for me to use in physical activity. |
| present life at a particular time of decisively | | | | |
| transforming their unhappy consciousness into a | | | | I had no thoughts, but what was left was sense |
| settled and enduring state of happiness. There is, | | | | consciousness, and it was nonconceptual sense |
| moreover, widespread agreement about the mental | | | | consciousness, not in the sense of lacking embedded |
| abilities and other components that comprise this | | | | concepts, but in the sense of having no discursive |
| liberated state. | | | | concepts overlaying it. This is what, in the Indian |
| | | | | tradition, is widely held to be the knowledge part of |
| Right from the start, from the Upanisads onwards, it | | | | mental liberation, directly observing reality as it truly is. |
| was agreed that the state of mental liberation includes | | | | In the unliberated state we conceptually classify |
| desirelessness, the control of desires, including sense | | | | consciousness of our surroundings as soon as it arises, |
| desires. In Buddhism one of the three main | | | | and if it is of no conceptual interest to us, we ignore |
| foundations of nirvana is non-desire or | | | | the presented consciousness. In my temporary |
| non-attachment. Another is non-aversion or | | | | liberated state, with such concepts put on one side, |
| goodwill. This more or less covers control of all | | | | sense consciousness was revealed in all its |
| emotions, which can be broadly divided into reacting | | | | particularity, all its variety and detail. I became aware |
| emotionally either for an object (desire) or against it | | | | of my body tingling. When I spoke I was much more |
| (aversion), this being linked to whether the object is | | | | distinctly aware than usual of the sound and diction of |
| associated with a feeling of pleasure, or with a feeling | | | | my own voice. At the end of the sea crossing, when |
| of pain or unpleasantness. So one component of | | | | I walked through the Western Docks Rail Station, it |
| mental liberation is equanimity, a state where the | | | | was like a miraculous cathedral, and I found the smell |
| emotions are in abeyance. Part of the mental training | | | | of smoke and soot a strikingly beautiful one. Not only |
| for mental liberation is practising not reacting | | | | was sense consciousness fully revealed by the |
| emotionally either for or against whatever object | | | | removal of thoughts, but also my attention was |
| arises in consciousness. | | | | entirely on my awareness of my surroundings, |
| | | | | because I rarely had to turn my attention to my |
| Emotions have at least two constituents: a state of | | | | thoughts. I was also observing the distinction |
| arousal ready for action, and a thought directing this | | | | between sense consciousness and all the thoughts |
| arousal towards a particular action, for example | | | | and concepts, all beliefs, all doctrines, all theories, all |
| moving towards something (desire behaviour) or | | | | philosophical views that are applied to it. I observed |
| backing away from it (aversion behaviour). This | | | | consciousness standing alone, without any need of |
| means that controlling emotions doesn’t only involve | | | | thoughts to support it. I observed that all ideas of |
| calming emotional arousal. It can also involve changing | | | | consciousness being mine, or being of a physical world, |
| the thought that directs the arousal, for example | | | | or of being brain activity, and so on, were just |
| replacing the thought “I want” with the thought | | | | conceptual ideas distinct from the consciousness |
| “May I do what is beneficial”, and an aggressive | | | | itself. They might be true beliefs, but they were |
| thought with the motivation of goodwill or love. It is | | | | beliefs, not the consciousness they were about, and if I |
| clearly understood in Buddhist psychology that | | | | didn’t need them I could let them subside. This |
| establishing ethical behaviour involves changing the | | | | was the direct knowing in the liberated state. It left all |
| thoughts that initiate behaviour. This altering of | | | | the conceptual knowledge untouched, the seemingly |
| motivation is one of the eight sections of the Buddhist | | | | endless and onerous task of gathering conceptual |
| path to nirvana, that of right attitude, in which one | | | | information, and by reasoning and experiment sifting |
| establishes thoughts such as that of compassion, and | | | | out the true beliefs from the false. This is the |
| the three following sections are the resulting ethical | | | | additional work left to be done by the philosophers and |
| behaviour of right speech, right action and right | | | | the scientists, and it is in this area that the different |
| livelihood. There are mental trainings in Buddhism for | | | | schools of ancient Indian philosophy disagreed with one |
| implanting these new motivations, involving a technique | | | | another, as different schools of philosophy do in the |
| of autosuggestion not unlike that used by some | | | | West. |
| present-day businesses who have their employees | | | | |
| repeat company slogans so as to adopt the right | | | | Overall, my temporary experience of mental liberation |
| corporate attitude. There is, however, some | | | | was a wonderful one to have, and bears out the Indian |
| ambivalence in the Indian tradition as to whether this | | | | view that the state of mental liberation is a pleasant |
| new motivation and ethical behaviour is an integral part | | | | one and well worth striving for. Yet at the same time |
| of mental liberation. It is sometimes said in Hinduism | | | | I could understand the Zen view that it was “nothing |
| that the liberated person is “beyond good and | | | | special”, in that it was what just presented itself, my |
| evil”, and in Mahayana Buddhism developing | | | | awareness of the everyday world around me, and |
| compassion seems to be seen as taking a step | | | | calling it special would have been to apply a concept |
| beyond nirvana. The original attitude of the Buddha | | | | to it. |
| seems to have been that the person in nirvana | | | | |
| needed to practise compassionate and other ethical | | | | My experience was certainly a transformation of |
| behaviour whether or not it arose naturally in that state. | | | | consciousness, as the Indian account says mental |
| | | | | liberation is, in that my usually uncontrolled |
| There is unequivocal agreement that the state of | | | | consciousness was replaced by a new and quite |
| mental liberation is one of attentiveness, of mental | | | | different kind of experience of mental mastery. |
| alertness. In the early Buddhist schools mental | | | | |
| laziness (thina and middha) is one of the things one has | | | | This complete control that I had, for the duration of this |
| to get rid of in order to achieve nirvana. Probably the | | | | temporary state of mind, over emotions and thoughts, |
| most common form of Indian mental training for | | | | with optimum efficiency of mental processes and |
| liberation is attention training. Both of the mental | | | | physical activity, and clarity of consciousness, provides |
| trainings mentioned in the eightfold Buddhist path to | | | | an insight into why the permanent state of mental |
| nirvana are of this kind: mindfulness and concentration. | | | | liberation is said to be one of completeness, with |
| | | | | nothing left to be achieved. At the time I certainly |
| Connected with this, it is clear enough that another | | | | couldn’t see how this perfected conscious state |
| aspect of mental liberation is the control of thoughts | | | | could be improved on. However, looking back at it |
| and conceptual activity (vikalpa). Three of the things | | | | afterwards, I realised that in the conceptual area which |
| listed in early Buddhism as having to be eradicated if | | | | is put on one side in the liberated state, there still |
| one is to attain nirvana are uncontrolled restless mental | | | | remains much that could be improved, better memory, |
| activity (uddhacca), mentally flitting from object to | | | | more logical thinking, greater factual knowledge, and so |
| object (vicikiccha), and speculative beliefs (ditthi). | | | | on. |
| More positively, ordinary consciousness, according to | | | | |
| early Buddhist psychology, already contains an ability to | | | | My temporary experience indicated that a state of |
| pay attention to a single object (ekaggata), but the | | | | mental liberation, along the lines described by the |
| problem is that this may not last for more than a | | | | ancient Indians, can occur, can happen to an ordinary |
| moment. One of the main Indian trainings for liberation | | | | human being in this present life. It is not an impossible |
| is samadhi or concentration on a single object for a | | | | ideal. It is a realisable state of the mind, or brain. |
| longer than usual period of time, which involves the | | | | |
| control of any other thoughts. This meditation is the | | | | One thing my temporary experience cannot show is |
| eighth and final section of the Buddhist way to nirvana, | | | | that this state of mental liberation can be made |
| with attention divided into the initial application of it | | | | permanent, as claimed by the ancient Indians. |
| (vitakka) and the continued holding of it (vicara). | | | | Nevertheless it lasted for five hours, from 6.15 till I went |
| | | | | to bed at 11.15, which shows that it has a degree of |
| Another factor, in this case not essential to mental | | | | stability to it, which the right mental training might |
| liberation, but not excluded by it, is physical activity. | | | | prolong. |
| Anyone whose knowledge of the Indian tradition of | | | | |
| mental liberation is limited to the familiar image of the | | | | The human brain that spontaneously produces these |
| seated Buddha at the time of his attainment of nirvana, | | | | temporary experiences of mental liberation will have |
| might get the impression that mental liberation is a | | | | been doing so for many thousands of years, because |
| physically inactive state. This opinion might be | | | | the brain hasn’t undergone any evolutionary change |
| reinforced by learning that the liberated person has | | | | in that time. So such states predate the first |
| stilled his emotions. But in fact we are told that | | | | mentions of mental liberation by the sages of the |
| shortly after gaining nirvana the Buddha got up and | | | | Upanisads. It is possible that such states provided the |
| spent the next forty five years leading a full and busy | | | | raw material for the development of the ancient Indian |
| life, walking all over northern India giving talks, meeting | | | | thinking about mental liberation. As part of their new |
| lots of people, and starting to organise the Buddhist | | | | interest in consciousness, philosophers may have |
| movement. Even in the days when he was dying he | | | | studied these temporary states and analysed them |
| was constantly on the move. It is accepted in early | | | | into their constituents. It might have been on the basis |
| Buddhist psychology that one in the liberated state still | | | | of this information that yogas or mental trainings were |
| has volitions (cetana) and a simple wish to do things | | | | then devised to teach these constituent skills found in |
| (chanda) like doing a job of work. Three of the eight | | | | the temporary states. People underwent this training |
| sections of the Buddhist path to nirvana are about | | | | and as a result began to experience more of these |
| physical activity: speech, action and livelihood, and one | | | | temporary episodes of liberation. Some people |
| of the Buddhist meditations, mindfulness of the body | | | | persisted with the training till the skills were completely |
| postures, teaches how to remain calm and alert while | | | | mastered, and as a result entered a permanent state |
| engaging in physical activity. | | | | of mental liberation. This then became the goal for all |
| | | | | seekers of liberation to aspire to. This may have |
| The final component of mental liberation, it is universally | | | | been how the tradition of mental liberation from |
| held, is knowledge. This is stressed right from the | | | | unhappiness developed in ancient India. |
| start in the Upanisads, and in Buddhism eradicating | | | | |
| ignorance is one of the three main ways of developing | | | | |
| nirvana, and all the other schools agree that knowledge | | | | Conclusion |
| is part of mental liberation. On the way to liberation | | | | |
| this is knowledge of how to get there. In the state of | | | | There are, then, two stages of liberation in the Indian |
| mental liberation itself knowledge is directly seeing | | | | exposition of this topic, the mental liberation which is |
| reality as it truly is. While all the schools agreed that | | | | gained in this life from the psychological unhappiness of |
| mental liberation involved such knowledge of reality, | | | | this life, and then at the death of the liberated person |
| they nevertheless all disagreed concerning what the | | | | physical liberation from being physically reborn. This |
| truth about reality was, and it is at this point that | | | | latter stage is of interest now only to those who both |
| unanimity on the subject of mental liberation is | | | | believe in physical rebirth and don’t want to be |
| fractured, with each school having a different | | | | reborn, a small group of people I suspect. |
| philosophy. But this doesn’t have to mean that | | | | |
| there are lots of different kinds of mental liberation. It | | | | Mental liberation, on the other hand, is potentially of |
| is possible that the actual experiences of mental | | | | interest to everyone, and deserves to be better |
| liberation being had by people in India were broadly the | | | | known. At the moment Western discussion of the |
| same, including the direct seeing of reality as it truly is, | | | | nature of happiness may not even mention the Indian |
| and that what differed were the philosophical | | | | contribution, even though it is much more an Indian topic |
| interpretations of it. The Buddha was alert to this | | | | than it is a Western one, raising interesting crosscultural |
| distinction, as we can see in the Mahakammavibhanga | | | | questions of values and norms of mental excellence |
| Sutta. Philosophers who had the experience would | | | | and happiness. |
| have been inclined to interpret it in terms of their own | | | | |
| philosophical viewpoint, and would have told their pupils | | | | I believe that to do the subject of mental liberation |
| that they had to accept this philosophy in order to gain | | | | from unhappiness justice requires an interdisciplinary |
| the mental liberation. This is not the place to give an | | | | approach, involving scholars and philosophers, but also |
| account of the different philosophies, which has | | | | psychologists and psychotherapists and brain |
| already been done in many books on Indian thought, | | | | researchers too. Mental liberation is something |
| except to repeat what has often been remarked on, | | | | accessible to empirical and experimental study, and |
| that there is an important difference between | | | | some initiatives along these lines are already being |
| 1) early Hindu and Jain theories or interpretations of | | | | made. The theory of mental liberation developed in |
| mental liberation, which we would now call broadly | | | | ancient India deserves to become a live issue and |
| religious, and | | | | ongoing project in the world of the 21st century. |