The Chinese Roots of New Thought - Confucius, Chu Hsi and Ernest Holmes

"Before there was a Heaven and an Earth there was,which relegated him to working in local temples rather
in the final analysis, only li ("principle")...There being lithan in higher government positions that he might
("principle") then there was ch'i ("energy") and itsotherwise have held. Losses sustained by China in
flowing, traveling, and creative acts..."earlier wars led Chinese philosophers such as Chu Hsi
Chu Hsi (1130-1200), Commentariesto question the moral strength of China's leaders and
"Bow deeply three times," my father instructed myto begin to reinterpret traditional Confucianism.
8-year-old brother and me many years ago. "WhenOpen at the Top
your turn comes, you both take five steps forward toConfucianism has evolved because it was open at the
the table in front, and honor your ancestors bytop, although much of this been a result of historical
bowing."circumstances and political changes.
"I don't see any ancestors..." I said. I had about as muchHistorically, Confucianism, a term coined by the Jesuits
interest in this ritual as I had in jumping off a cliff. "Itin the 1500s, was born during the period that historians
seems so stupid that everyone has to bow beforecall "Summer and Autumn Period" of the Zhou
these candles and incense!"Dynasty (700 BC-240 BC) - a feudal society
"They are joss sticks, and they are to honor yourgoverned by a relatively weak emperor and a large
ancestors," my father corrected. "First Grandpa andnetwork of princes, dukes, relatives of the Zhou
Grandma will go and bow, and then your uncles, youremperor, and allies. The hundreds of fiefdoms made
mother and I, and then the grandchildren - you andfor constant war, bickering and schemes to
your brother." My father, usually an amiable person,consolidate power. The larger fiefdoms became
directed us in a voice that would brook no argument.states, and the stronger states annexed or conquered
Harmony in the Chu family prevailed. When our turnsmaller ones. Alliances were made and lost, and the
came, my brother and I went up there without a fussstrongest states even declared independence against
and bowed three times. We did it every Chinese Newthe Emperor. Eventually, the strongest states fought
Year for many years, until both my grandparents hadagainst each other, and the feudal system splintered,
made their transitions.opening the way for a new dynasty and philosophy
Little did I know then that 50 years later I would regardthat would unite the Chinese culture.
my upbringing, ancestor veneration and all, with lovingThis was the world that Confucius inhabited when he
appreciation; that I would revisit memories of suchpostulated a system of harmonious, moral society that
rituals with great curiosity; or that I would discovervalued loyalty, filial piety, acceptance of and
strong Confucian and Taoist influences in my familyresponsibility for one's class in life, and the practice of
traditions and values.humaneness (agape) and virtue from top to bottom.
Nor did I anticipate my most recent discovery, that aConfucianism, which stressed harmony, respect and
12th-Century Chinese sage named Chu Hsi was onehonor, was anchored in rituals, especially at the family
of the Asian forefathers of 20th-Century Newlevel.
Thought.Although Confucianism was reinterpreted every five or
I found Chu Hsi while doing research for a book. I alsosix hundred years by Chinese scholars, the impact of
came across something else -- surprising and excitingChu Hsi's Neo-Confucianism was enormous.
-- that left me no doubt that I had been divinely guidedNeo-Confucian philosophy became the basis of China's
to my discoveries. More on that surprise later.civil service exam system, the first world's first
Chinese "New Thought"meritocracy; and of a harmonious and virtuous societal
In the 12th Century, a Confucian sage named Chu Hsiorder with a Taoist-influenced spiritual cosmology. Life
(also: Zhu Xi) developed what 20th-Century scholarsmagazine's 1998 special edition of The 100 Most
have termed Neo-Confucianism, which was a veryImportant People and Events in the Past 1000 Years
significant addition to Confucius' original teachingsincluded Chu Hsi, the father of Neo-Confucianism, in the
recorded in 5th-Century B.C.E.top 50.
In his writings, Chu Hsi incorporated and synthesizedWhile Chu Hsi is given credit for the development of
ideas from several venerable sources: the writings ofNeo-Confucianism, there were others who contributed
Confucius; key metaphysical concepts found in the Ito the synthesis of Confucian thought. Another
Ching; the cosmology and spirituality in Taoist texts; andcompeting school of Neo Confucian thought was
(to a lesser degree) the tenets of Buddhism.presented by the great Mind philosopher, poet, and
Today, what we call "Confucianism" is actually Chugeneral, Wang Yangming (1472-21529), who equated
Hsi's Neo-Confucianism. Few Westerners realize thatmind with li, but taught that self- cultivation was based
the ideas they attribute to Confucius actually belongedon intuitive knowing vs. investigation and diligent study.
to Chu Hsi.In the 20th Century, amidst political and economic
Although they lived more than seven centuries apart,upheavals and wars in East Asia, New Confucianism
remarkable similarities exist between Chu Hsi andwas born. This latest revision of 2,500-year-old ideas
Ernest Holmes, the founder of Religious Science - notincorporates not only Neo-Confucianist teachings but
only in the development of their ideas and theirWestern ideas. Like its predecessors, New
conclusions, but in their interests and personalities, too.Confucianism is partly a product of the politics and
Both were outspoken. Both were iconoclasts. Bothtimes of the China in which it arose.
were well-versed in the philosophy and spirituality ofSelf-Reflection and Study
their respective times. Both saw beyond the materialThe Neo-Confucianists' concept of self-introspection
world of effect into the principle of Spirit unfoldingwas equivalent to Religious Scientists' experience of a
through every life. And both explored and synthesizedspiritual journey. Confucian family rituals such as
ideas from many traditions, creating a rich integrationancestor veneration served as reminders of the
of metaphysics, spirituality and philosophy.wisdom, love and support of the Great Ultimate;
Confucian teachings, and then Neo-Confucian ideas,Religious Scientists participate in the ritual of Sunday
became the basis of Chinese culture, its civil service,services intended to remind them of the wisdom, love
and many of its important family rituals. Confucius sawand support that indwells them. Heaven mind, seen in
the individual as an integral part of his or her family,the study of nature, is a Taoist concept evident in
village, province, country and world; he taught that eachEmerson's observation that "nature always wears the
person had a responsibility to lead a virtuous and moralcolors of Spirit." For Chu Hsi, developing the
life, one based on respect for filial piety. Each personconsciousness of heaven mind was not enough. True
bore a societal responsibility to become "the superiorto his Confucian roots, he taught the importance of
man" through introspection, diligent study, andputting consciousness into action within the context of
observation.the greater good of society.
Chu Hsi stressed the creative nature of Spirit ratherThese qualities of the "superior man" were attained by
than the stillness of the Infinite elevated in Taoist anddiligent study -- reading and memorizing the writings of
Buddhist teachings. Chu Hsi saw the great Creator asConfucius, which have come to be known as The
principle.Analects of Confucius, The Confucian Canons (4
Infinity was described by the Chinese term "taiji" orbooks), The Book of Rites, and the I Ching or Book of
"grand ultimate." The concept of taiji first appears inChanges. Neo-Confucian classics were revised but
the I Ching, the ancient philosophical text also known asincluded The Analects of Confucius, which were
The Book of Changes. Taiji, in Chinese philosophy,directly recorded quotes from him; The Great Learning,
describes the eternal source and union of the twoextracted from The Book of Rites, which is an
primary aspects of the cosmos, yang (active) and yinauthoritative work on the process of self- cultivation;
(passive).and The Doctrine of the Mean, another chapter from
In New Thought, these primary aspects are equivalentThe Book of Rites, which enumerated important
to two states of Mind: conscious (active) andelements of metaphysical psychological theory and
subconscious (passive) Mind.sagehood. A fourth book was the Works of Meng
Like Religious Scientists, Neo-Confucianists did notTzu or Mencius (circa 200 B.C.E.), the first great
believe in heaven and hell in the Christian sense;Confucian scholar to reinterpret and enrich
instead, they thought in terms of tien li (heaven mind)Confucianism. From the superior man came the path
and shr li (earth mind) -- both states of consciousness.of true wisdom, or the path of the sage.
Chu Hsi believed in an impersonal God made personalNeo-Confucianism and Asian Culture
by its indwelling presence or principle in each person orSimilar to the original development of Confucianism,
class of creation.Neo-Confucian philosophy came out of an era where
The Neo-Confucian philosophers of the Sung dynastythe Song emperors were warring against fierce
(960-1279) further expanded that idea by associatinginvading Jurchen tribesman, descendants of the
taiji with li ("principle"), the supreme rational principle ofTartars of central Asia. With more than 100 years
the universe, the originating principle of the grandconstantly at war with the hostile Jurchens, the Song
ultimate. Li is Mind, but it is also Law. In New Thoughtemperors in 1127 abandoned the ancient northern
terms, Li (Cause) engenders ch'i ("vital matter" or thecapital at Kaifeng and settled in Hongzhou in the south,
Effect), which is transformed through the yang and yinin an area roughly smaller than Eastern Europe.
modes of development into the Five Elements (wood,Eventually, in 1279, all of China would fall to another
earth, fire, metal, and water). Chinese cosmology seesinvading tribe from Mongolia led by Genghis Khan, but
these as the primary constituents of the physicaleven the "barbaric" Mongols and the Manchus from
universe.Manchuria who founded the Ching Dynasty in the 17th
Contrast this with what Ernest Holmes, sevenCentury adapted Neo-Confucianism as a guideline for
centuries later, wrote in The Anatomy of Healinggoverning.
Prayer: "...we are not only surrounded by divineNeo-Confucianism also was adapted in the Tokagowa
Presence, which responds to us as Person -- we areShogunate (1603-1868) in feudal Japan and heavily
surrounded by a universal Principle, which responds toinfluenced the samurai moral code of bushido, which
us as Law..."stressed loyalty, morality, honor and responsibility. Since
Legacy of the Three Great Traditionsneighboring countries such as Japan and Korea were
The 5th and 6th centuries B.C.E. produced China'sgoverned primarily through monarchies or dictatorships,
three greatest philosophers: Confucius, Lao Tzu, andConfucianism as first developed envisioned a system
the Buddha. Noting the importance of these centuriesto create harmony and peace throughout the country,
in Chinese thought, some historians compare 5th- andin local areas, within families and within the self, and
6th-Century China with ancient Greece.subsequently as a system to bring stability to society.
Chinese philosophy, especially Taoism, ConfucianismCurrent-day Confucianism or Neo-Confucianism in its
and the metaphysics of the I Ching, were not alwaysentirety was embraced by Korea in the 1300s, and it
separate and distinct schools, but ratherremains an important part of both North and South
complementary at times. Confucianism incorporatedKorean culture.
key concepts of Taoism and the I Ching.Aspects of Neo-Confucianism are strongly instilled in
Neo-Confucian-era paintings depict Confucius, Buddhathe Chinese and Asian culture today. For example,
and Lao Tzu drinking from the same vinegar jar andConfucius stressed the concept of guanshi, which
declare: "The three teachings are one!"carries the notion of "good will" and "relationship." To
Ernest Holmes studied the three great philosophicalthe Western mind, friendship and relationship may hold
and spiritual traditions of China: Buddhism, Taoism andvalue on a personal basis, but not necessarily in
Confucianism, so it is perhaps not surprising thatbusiness, where another set of standards seem to
Science of Mind incorporates Eastern ideas. Theapply. Western companies choosing to do business in
works of Thomas Troward and Ralph WaldoChina have learned the hard way about the necessity
Emerson reflected Eastern thought. The works ofof cultivating relationships; the importance of face; and
Confucius and Chu Hsi also influenced such luminariesworking through channels - all part of the original
as Wilhelm Reich and Swedenborg. Holmes certainlyConfucian philosophy.
studied Confucius' concepts of the principle ofComing Full Circle
harmony and the practice of humaneness (ren), orWesterners might have some difficulty understanding
agape, highly valued in Buddhism and Taoism, and thewhy businessmen or the merchant class were at the
common themes of oneness with Source, the illusionbottom of the Confucian social order, below farmers
of the material world, and the power and responsibleand laborers. It was primarily because merchants
use of positive thought.made a profit at the expense of others, without
Holmes undoubtedly saw the Hindu roots of Buddha'sconcern for the greater good. There is much that we
teachings as well, and reflections of both in Emerson'sin the West can take away from the great Neo-
essays, which describe the "illusion of the materialConfucian philosophy in our own business practices
world, and the great 'Oversoul.'" The Tao te Ching alsoand the focus on material outer wealth at any cost.
may have influenced Holmes with its wisdom ofOur economic system has led to individuals and
opposites and the relationship between the Tao andcorporations who narrowly focus on profit and
each individual.stockholder interests without looking at the greater
Neo-Confucianism has been heavily influenced bycosts to society or to the environment.
Taoist philosophy, which emphasized introspection butThe U.S. Congress has attempted to legislate
encouraged its followers to observe the unfolding ofcorporate morality through Sarbanes Oxley and the
perfection and enlightenment through nature. TrueForeign Corrupt Practices Act, while at the same time
wisdom could be seen in contrasts of opposites:being heavily influenced by the lobbying of the very
learning without speaking; action through non-action;corporate interests they regulate. What is needed is a
and becoming more by doing less. The ultimatevision of connection, global sustainability of resources,
Oneness with Spirit was experienced in the greatand cooperation that transcends more narrowly
stillness, the sum of all creation in the great emptinessfocused individual interests. To paraphrase Confucian
devoid of the illusion of the material world.wisdom: "Where we offer humaneness to others, we
History suggests that a young Confucius met the oldfill the world with harmony, prosperity and peace."
sage Lao Tzu and shared this with his students:Given the major changes in China, especially those
I know how birds can fly, fishes swim, and animals run.that have brought economic and social progress, it is
But the runner may be snared, the swimmer hooked,possible that New Thought, whose roots in Eastern
and the flyer shot by the arrow. But there is thespirituality were shaped by Western transcendalism,
dragon: I cannot tell how he mounts on the windcan enrich the long continuum of Confucianism.
through the clouds, and rises to heaven. Today I haveConfucianism has emphasized virtue, principal and
seen Lao-tzu, and can only compare him to thesocietal harmony, while New Thought has emphasized
dragon.Spirit expressing through universal laws by means of
Chu Hsi's Emergenceus. Seven hundred years later, Neo-Confucianism and
For more than a thousand years, the study ofNew Thought arrive in the same place.
Confucianism was known as "daosye" or "the way"Finally, I mentioned near the beginning that I would
(not to be confused with the way of Taoism). Whilereveal the greatest surprise of my research. Despite
much of Chinese philosophy had been studied andhaving more than a billion people, China has only 100
translated by the Jesuits and others, Chu Hsi's writingsfamily clans. The English spelling of the names of these
were not widely translated by Western scholars untilclans can vary widely. For example, Chu can be
well after Holmes' 1926 edition of the Science of Mindspelled Zhu, Chiu, Gee, Ju and other ways. Chu is the
textbook was written.14th most common name in China. The Chinese
Even today, while Chu Hsi is revered in China as onecharacter for the Chu clan is "vermillion." During my
of its greatest Confucian sages, he is little known in theresearch for my new book, I established that Chu Hsi
West. Chu Hsi was born in the mountainous provinceis a member of the Chu clan, as are the founding
of Fujian in southern China. He was the son of a minoremperors of the Ming Dynasty, which adopted
government official who had incurred the wrath of theNeo-Confucianism as the state philosophy.
emperor by opposing the tribute settlement with theA large number of the Chus come from Anhui and
warring Jurchens. The Song emperors bartered nearlyJiangsu provinces in southern China, where Chu Hsi's
150 years of peace by agreeing to pay tribute to thefamily lived before his father was exiled. This area is
Jurchens. During that period, there was a resurgencealso near my family's ancestoral home. So I was led to
of philosophy as well as invention ofwonder: When I was bowing to my ancestors every
gunpowder-propelled rockets; the first moveable typeChinese New Year, was I bowing to Chu Hsi?
printing press; the compass; and the establishment ofI have realized anew the truth in the saying, "What you
naval power through advances in shipbuilding.resist, persists." Little did I know when I resisted our
As a child, Chu Hsi proved to be precocious in thefamily ancestor veneration ritual that, 50 years later, as
study of classics; he passed the civil service exama Religious Science minister, I would have a special
with high marks at a very young age. An iconoclast, heappreciation of indeed of what it is like to stand on the
was outspoken about the corruption of local officials,shoulders of my ancestors.