| By | | | | the ninth century BC, from Zinjirli in north |
| | | | Syria; from Nineveh, Kouyunjik, Nimrud, |
| Gabriel Sawma | | | | Khorsabad (8th to 7th century BC; from |
| | | | Babylonia (6th -4th cent. BC); from Tello, |
| BACKGROUND | | | | bilingual in Aramaic and Greek (3rd cent. |
| | | | BC); from Egypt (fifth to beginning of third |
| The fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of | | | | cent. BC); the so-called stele of Sakhara, |
| the First Temple in 587 BC, by the forces of | | | | bilingual (Egyptian and Aramaic) dated the |
| king of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, mark the | | | | fourth year of Xerxes 482 BC; from Taima, |
| beginning of what is known as the Babylonian | | | | north of Hijaz; Al-Hijr; Petra and Hauran; |
| Exile of the Jews. Up to that time, and from | | | | the Palmyrene inscriptions belong to the |
| the moment of its appearance in a documented | | | | first three centuries of the Christian Era ; |
| written form, the Hebrew language presents, a | | | | from the Sinaitic Peninsula; from Pakistan |
| clear evidence that it belongs to the | | | | (3rd. cent. BC); from the former Soviet Union |
| Canaanite family of languages. This means | | | | (2nd cent. BC); and from Afghanistan (3rd |
| that when the Israelite tribes settled in the | | | | cent. BC). |
| land of Canaan, from the fourteenth to | | | | |
| thirteenth centuries BC, they adopted the | | | | THE ARAMAIC LANGUAGE OF JESUS |
| language of that country (Isa. 19:18). | | | | |
| | | | At the beginning of the Christian era, |
| The Hebrew of the poetic sections of the | | | | Aramaic, in various dialects was the dominant |
| Bible, as well as the oldest epigraphic | | | | spoken language of Syria and Mesopotamia. It |
| material in inscriptions dating from the | | | | developed a number of literary dialects, |
| tenth to the sixth centuries BC, is known as | | | | known as Palestinian Jewish Aramaic, |
| Archaic Hebrew. Among the biblical passages | | | | Samaritan Aramaic, Syro-Palestinian Christian |
| that reflect Archaic Hebrew are the Song of | | | | Aramaic, Syriac, Babylonian Talmudic Aramaic, |
| Moses (Ex 15), the Song of Deborah (Jug 5), | | | | and Mandaic Aramaic. In Galilee and Samaria, |
| the Blessings of Jacob (Gen 49) and of Moses | | | | Aramaic dialects became the day-to-day means |
| (Deut 33), the Oracles of Balaam (Nm 23-24), | | | | of communication. |
| and the Poems of Moses (Deut 32), as well as | | | | |
| Ps 68 and other early psalms. | | | | It is generally agreed that the inhabitants |
| | | | of Palestine, at the dawn of the first |
| The language used in the prose sections of | | | | century, were acquainted in varying degrees |
| the Pentateuch and in the prophets and the | | | | with the Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. |
| writings before the exile, are known as | | | | |
| Classical Biblical Hebrew, or Biblical Hebrew | | | | Differences emerge, however, regarding the |
| (BH) proper. | | | | geographical and chronological limits of each |
| | | | language. Some scholars defend the theory |
| Many Biblical scholars characterize BH as a | | | | that Jesus spoke in Greek, among those in |
| language which does not have the full sense | | | | favor of this is Vosius, in the seventeenth |
| of the word, a merely "fragment of language". | | | | century, D. Diodati In the eighteenth century |
| The approximately 8,000 lexical items | | | | and Paulus, Hug and Credner in the nineteenth |
| preserved in the books of the Bible, are not | | | | century. More recently, A.W Argyle argued |
| enough to meet the needs of a living | | | | that Jesus spoke Greek and that his audience |
| language. There have also been claims by | | | | understood it as easily as they did in |
| various scholars that clear traces of Aramaic | | | | Aramaic. Some welcomed this claim, but others |
| can be found in the origins of Hebrew. | | | | were in opposition. |
| | | | |
| Recently, various studies have emphasized | | | | Evidence of Hellenistic influence, is |
| that Aramaic May have influenced the Hebrew | | | | attested by numerous Greek inscriptions, |
| language very strongly, mainly in the second | | | | graffiti, and correspondence, Greek |
| half of the first millennium BC up to the | | | | Pseudepigrapha written in Palestine, the |
| beginning of the Christian Era. It may also | | | | Greek fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls, as |
| be said that other languages, Semitic and | | | | well as the Greek influence found throughout |
| non-Semitic had their influence on the Hebrew | | | | rabbinic literature. |
| language, especially those who had a | | | | |
| significant cultural impact in the region | | | | Others have stressed the role of Latin, the |
| such as the Sumarian, Akkadian, and Egyptian. | | | | language of the Roman administration; they |
| Those languages left their mark on Canaan | | | | argue that Latin left its mark on a number of |
| before the Hebrew language came into | | | | public inscriptions as well as in a few of |
| existence. Ugarit and Phoenician on one hand, | | | | the Dead Sea Scrolls. Latin influence is |
| and the Southern Semitic dialects on the | | | | manifested in certain aspects of Rabbinic |
| other, have also given rise to many loanwords | | | | Hebrew. |
| in Biblical Hebrew. There is also influence, | | | | |
| to a lesser degree, from Persian and Greek. | | | | M. Wilcox, on the other hand, considers the |
| Some Hebrew words derive from Indo-European | | | | Hebrew language of the Dead Sea Scrolls, |
| languages, such as Hittite, and even | | | | which predominates over Aramaic, as an |
| Sanskrit. In the Oracles of Balaam (Nm 23:7) | | | | indication that Hebrew, in New Testament |
| we encounter, for example (Roba) 'dust', | | | | time, was not confined to rabbinical circles, |
| attested in the Akkadian inscriptions; | | | | but appears to be a "normal vehicle of |
| (Surim), which means 'mountains'; (Nehalim) | | | | expression". Along this, runs a similar view |
| 'palm' . Some of the roots peculiar to | | | | of H. Birkeland, who challenged the usual |
| archaic poetry are found in other Semitic | | | | view that Aramaic was the regular spoken |
| dialects. For example (P'L) 'do, make'; (Mhs) | | | | language of the first century Palestine. |
| 'strike', and (hardus) 'gold' are common in | | | | According to Dr. Birkeland, Hebrew, not |
| Canaanite and Ugaritic texts, wheras | | | | Aramaic, was the language of the Jews and of |
| (Yatannu) 'let them recount' (Jg 5:11) and | | | | Jesus. |
| (Mahaqa) 'destroyed' (Jg 5:26) correspond | | | | |
| phonologically to Aramaic. | | | | No one doubts the extent to which Aramaic had |
| | | | spread throughout the Levant from the middle |
| The Babylonian Exile of the Jews exposed them | | | | of the first millennium BC, until; Arabic |
| to an Aramaic cultural and linguistic | | | | supplanted it, in the seventh century. A more |
| environment. The Aramaic language before that | | | | difficult question, which has led to a |
| time had been widely spread throughout the | | | | significant disagreement among scholars, has |
| Assyrian Empire as the language of | | | | to do with differences among, and |
| administration, commerce and diplomacy, | | | | classification of the various dialects of |
| supplanting the Akkadian as the Lingua Franca | | | | Aramaic. |
| of the Assyrian Empire (1100-612 BC). The | | | | |
| incident recorded at 2 Kings 18:26 and Isa | | | | The most extreme theory is that during the |
| 36:11 provide some indication of the spread | | | | Exile, the Jews lost their Hebrew language |
| of Aramaic into Palestine. During | | | | for Aramaic, reserving Hebrew, already a dead |
| Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem in 701 BC, | | | | language, for literature. This was Saadiah's |
| the Jewish officials request that the | | | | view, and also, in different forms, by a |
| Assyrian Rabshakeh negotiate in the | | | | number of nineteenth- and-twentieth century |
| diplomatic tongue, i.e. Aramaic. | | | | scholars, including A. Geiger, A. Meyer, G.H. |
| | | | Dalman, A. Dupont-Sommer, and F. Altheim and |
| In the aftermath of the destruction of | | | | R. Stiehl. |
| Nineveh in August 612 BC by a combined force | | | | |
| of Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II and | | | | Meyer argued that Jesus' mother tongue was |
| Medes commanded by Cyaxares, a Neo-Babylonian | | | | Aramaic and that most of the Testament |
| Empire (605-538 BC) became the dominant | | | | writings were originally written in Aramaic |
| power. And the Aramaic language remained a | | | | and later translated into Greek. Dalman |
| universal language during that period. It | | | | agrees with the fact that Aramaic was the |
| reached its zenith as the official language | | | | spoken language of the Jews in New Testament |
| of the Persian Empire (538-330 BC). | | | | time. He concluded that Jesus grew up in |
| | | | Aramaic environment, and that He had to use |
| With the rise of the Empire of Alexander | | | | Aramaic in order to be understood by his |
| (336-323 BC) in the East, the Greek language | | | | disciples and the people. |
| became influential in the region. The Greek | | | | |
| translation of the Hebrew Old Testament (at | | | | More recently too, Dupont-Sommer argued that, |
| Alexandria), known as the Septuagint (LXX), | | | | Aramaic was the only language current among |
| and subsequently the writings of the New | | | | ordinary people at the time of Jesus, and |
| Testament, were only examples of such | | | | that it was the language spoken by Jesus and |
| influence. But Greek never displaced Aramaic | | | | the Apostles. Similarly, Altheim and Stiehl |
| among the Jews of Palestine or Babylon. | | | | argued that from the beginning of the |
| | | | Hellenistic era, Aramaic had completely |
| The succeeding Maccabean, Hasmonian, and | | | | supplanted Hebrew as a spoken language. |
| Roman administration in Palestine did not | | | | |
| witness fundamental changes in the linguistic | | | | A more sophisticated approach distinguishes |
| situation, although, with the coming of the | | | | Middle Aramaic (from 300 BC), and Late |
| Romans to the East, Latin was introduced into | | | | Aramaic dialects. In the first group, E.Y. |
| many aspects of public life. | | | | Kutscher placed Targum Onkelos and the |
| | | | Aramaic translations from the Dead Sea |
| BIBLICAL ARAMAIC | | | | Scrolls as well as inscriptions from around |
| | | | Jerusalem, and Aramaic expressions in the New |
| Passages of the Old Testament written in the | | | | Testament. The later dialects, which belong |
| Aramaic language are called Biblical Aramaic. | | | | to Western Aramaic, are classified as |
| They occur in Ezra 4:8; 6:18 and 7:12-26. | | | | Galilean, Samaritan, and |
| Daniel 2:4,7:28; and the gloss in Jer. 10:11 | | | | Christian-Palestinian Aramaic. Of these, the |
| and Gen 31:47. | | | | Galilean dialect is of particular interest, |
| | | | because, it was used, for example, in the |
| Various scholars have tried to show that the | | | | Aramaic sections of the Palestinian Talmud , |
| original language of a number of books from | | | | the Palestinian Targums , numerous midrashim |
| the Persian and Hellenistic periods, were | | | | , and various Synagogue inscriptions. |
| written in Aramaic, and that they were later | | | | |
| translated into Hebrew. This view has been | | | | The evidence of the Aramaic language of Jesus |
| presented in connection with Job, Koheleth, | | | | is Impossible to explain if Aramaic was not |
| Daniel, Esther, 1 and 2 Chronicles, proverbs, | | | | His spoken language. The Scriptures were |
| and Ezekiel | | | | provided with Targum for the Aramaic-speaking |
| | | | masses who could no longer understand Hebrew. |
| In the New Testament, various Aramaic words | | | | |
| or expressions occur, e.g. "Talitha Cumi" | | | | Nowadays, there are few scholars who would |
| (little girl, stand up) Mark 5:41; "Ephphata" | | | | disagree that in Galilee and Samaria, the |
| (etphtah, be opened) Mark 7:34; "Eli, Eli, | | | | spoken language of the time was basically |
| Lama Shabachthani" (my God, my God, why hast | | | | Aramaic. More controversial though, is the |
| thou forsaken me) Matt.27:46, Mark 15:34; | | | | extent of the use of Aramaic in Judea to the |
| "Rabboni" (my Lord) Mark 10:51, John 20:16; | | | | south . The discovery of Aramaic texts among |
| "Maran Atha" (our Lord, come) Cor. 16:22. | | | | the Dead Sea Scrolls, as well as earlier |
| | | | evidence from, for example, names of persons |
| Aramaic influence is apparent in personal | | | | and places, have demonstrated conclusively |
| names such as " Cephas" John 1:42, 1 Cor 1:12 | | | | that the use of Aramaic was well established, |
| and "Tabitha" Acts 9:36, 40, and in place | | | | but not completely dominant in Judea. |
| names, including "Akeldama" (field of blood) | | | | |
| Acts 1:19; "Gesthsemane (oil press) Matt | | | | To simplify the matter, we can say that the |
| 26:36, Mark 14:32; and "Golgotha" (skull) | | | | most widely spoken language was Galilean |
| Mark 15:22 | | | | Aramaic in Galilee, Samaritan Aramaic in |
| | | | Samaria, and Rabbinic Hebrew in Judea, |
| ARAMAIC INSCRIPTIONS | | | | although, at certain times and places, more |
| | | | than one language may have been used. Since |
| We possess an abundant number of inscriptions | | | | Jesus began his career as a Galilean rabbi, |
| written in Aramaic. They constitute an | | | | well versed in the Scripture, It is highly |
| extremely important source of information for | | | | possible that he was able to converse in |
| our knowledge of Biblical Aramaic. With the | | | | Hebrew as in Aramaic. |
| earliest inscriptions dating as far back as | | | | |